Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology
Volume 20, Issue 4 , Pages 741-756 , August 2006

Prevention of cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatic diseases

  • Robyn Domsic, MD (Fellow)
    • ,
  • Kathleen Maksimowicz-McKinnon, DO (Assistant Professor)
    • ,
  • Susan Manzi, MD, MPH (Associate Professor with Tenure)

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Address: University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, 3500 Terrace Street, BST S722, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA. Tel.: +1 412 383 8732.

References 

  1. Turesson C, O'Fallon W, Crowson C, et al. Occurrence of extraarticular disease manifestations is associated with excess mortality in a community-based cohort of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of Rheumatology. 2002;29:62–67
  2. Gabriel S, Crowson C, Maradit-Kremers H, et al. Survival in rheumatoid arthritis. A population-based analysis of trends over 40 years. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2003;48:54–58
  3. Wolfe F, Mitchell DM, Sibley JT, et al. The mortality of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1994;37:481–494
  4. Maradit-Kremers H, Nicola P, Crowson C, et al. Cardiovascular death in rheumatoid arthritis. A population-based study. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2005;52:722–732
  5. Navarro-Cano G, del Rincon I, Pogosian S, et al. Association of mortality with disease severity in rheumatoid arthritis, independent of comorbidity. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2003;48:2425–2433
  6. del Rincon I, Williams K, Stern M, et al. High incidence of cardiovascular events in a rheumatoid arthritis cohort not explained by traditional cardiac risk factors. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2001;44:2737–2745
  7. Bulkley BH, Roberts WC. The heart in systemic lupus erythematosus and the changes induced in it by corticosteroid therapy. A study of 36 necropsy patients. The American Journal of Medicine. 1975;58:243–264
  8. Urowitz MB, Bookman AA, Koehler BE, et al. The bimodal mortality pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus. The American Journal of Medicine. 1976;60:221–225
  9. Manzi S, Meilahn EN, Rairie JE, et al. Age-specific incidence rates of myocardial infarction and angina in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with the Framingham Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;145:408–415
  10. Esdaile JM, Abrahamowicz M, Grodziecky T, et al. Traditional Framingham risk factors fail to fully account for accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2001;44:2331–2337
  11. de Leeuw K, Sanders JS, Stegeman C, et al. Accelerated atherosclerosis in Wegener's granulomatosis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2005;64:753–759
  12. Vaudo G, Bocci EB, Shoenfeld Y, et al. Precocious intima-media thickening in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2005;52:3890–3897
  13. Ozdemir R, Barutcu I, Sezgin AT, et al. Vascular endothelial function and plasma homocysteine levels in Behcet's disease. The American Journal of Cardiology. 2004;94:522–525
  14. Vaudo G, Marchesi S, Gerli R, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in young patients with rheumatoid arthritis and low disease activity. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2004;63:31–35
  15. El-Magadmi M, Bodill H, Ahmad Y, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus: an independent risk factor for endothelial dysfunction in women. Circulation. 2004;110:399–404
  16. Booth AD, Jayne DRW, Kharbanda RK, et al. Infliximab improves endothelial dysfunction in systemic vasculitis. A model of vascular inflammation. Circulation. 2004;109:1718–1723
  17. Roman M, Shanker B, Davis A, et al. Prevalence and correlates of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2003;349:2399–2406
  18. Manzi S, Selzer F, Sutton Tyrrell K, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of carotid plaque in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1999;42:51–60
  19. Dessein PH, Joffe BI, Singh S. Biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction, cardiovascular risk factors, and atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2005;7:R634–R643
  20. Maksimowicz-McKinnon K, Wilke WS. Cardiovascular disease in rheumatoid arthritis: adding insult to injury. New Developments in Rheumatic Diseases. 2005;3:13–18
  21. Choi HK, Hernan MA, Seeger JD, et al. Methotrexate and mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study. Lancet. 2002;359:1173–1177
  22. Wallberg-Jonsson S, Ohman M, Rantapaa-Dahlqvist S. Which factors are related to the presence of atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis?. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 2004;33:373–379
  23. Popa C, Netea MG, Radstake T, et al. Influence of anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy on cardiovascular risk factors in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2005;64:303–305
  24. Hurlimann D, Forster A, Noll G, et al. Anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment improves endothelial function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation. 2002;106:2184–2187
  25. Jacobsson LT, Turesson C, Gulfe A, et al. Treatment with tumor necrosis factor blockers is associated with a lower incidence of first cardiovascular events in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of Rheumatology. 2005;32:1253–1258
  26. Wei L, MacDonald T, Walker B. Taking glucocorticoids by prescription is associated with subsequent cardiovascular disease. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2004;141:764–770
  27. del Rincon I, O'Leary D, Haas R, et al. Effects of glucocorticoids on the arteries in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50:3813–3822
  28. Zonaca-Nacach A, Barr S, Magder L, et al. Damage in systemic lupus erythematosus and its association with corticosteroids. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2000;43:1801–1808
  29. Bruce IN, Gladman DD, Urowitz MB. Detection and modification of risk factors for coronary artery disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a quality improvement study. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 1998;16:435–440
  30. Al-Herz A, Ensworth S, Shojania K, Esdaile JM. Cardiovascular risk factor screening in systemic lupus erythematosus. The Journal of Rheumatology. 2003;30:493–496
  31. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000. JAMA. 2002;288:1723–1727
  32. World Health Organization . Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. WHO Technical Report Series 894 Geneva: World Health Organization; 2000;
  33. Costenbander KH, Wright E, Liang MH, et al. Cardiac risk factor awareness and management in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;51:983–988
  34. Sköldstam L, Hagfors L, Johansson G. An experimental study of a Mediterranean diet intervention for patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2003;62:208–214
  35. deLorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, et al. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction. Final report of the Lyon diet heart study. Circulation. 1999;99:779–785
  36. deJong Z, Munneke M, Lems WF, et al. Slowing of bone loss in patients with rheumatoid arthritis by long-term high-intensity exercise: results of a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50:1066–1076
  37. Keyser RE, Rus V, Cade WT, et al. Evidence for aerobic insufficiency in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2003;49:16–22
  38. Tench C, Bentley D, Vleck F, et al. Aerobic fitness, fatigue and physical disability in systemic lupus erythematosus. The Journal of Rheumatology. 2002;29:474–481
  39. Hall J, Grant J, Blake D, et al. Cardiorespiratory responses to aquatic treadmill walking in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Physiotherapy Research International. 2004;9:59
  40. Stenstrom CH, Minor MA. Evidence for the benefit of aerobic and strengthening exercise in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2003;49:428–434
  41. Hakkinen A, Sokka T, Kotaniemi A, Hannonen P. A randomized two-year study of the effects of dynamic strength training on muscle strength, disease activity, functional capacity, and bone mineral density in early rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2001;44:515–522
  42. Munneke M, DeJong Z, Zwinderman AH, et al. Effect of a high-intensity weight-bearing exercise program on radiologic damage progression of the large joints in subgroups of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2005;53:410–417
  43. American Geriatrics Society Panel on Exercise and Osteoarthritis. Exercise prescription for older adults with osteoarthritis pain: consensus practice recommendations. A supplement to the AGS clinical practice guidelines on the management of chronic pain in older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2001;49:808–823
  44. Park Y, Lee S, Suh C, et al. Lipid profile in untreated patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of Rheumatology. 1999;26:1701–1704
  45. Park Y, Choi H, Kim M, et al. Effects of antirheumatic therapy on serum lipid levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study. The American Journal of Medicine. 2002;113:188–193
  46. Pearson TA, Blair SN, Daniels SR, et al. AHA guidelines for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke: 2002 update. Consensus Panel guide to comprehensive risk reduction for adult patients without coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular diseases. American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee. Circulation. 2002;106:388–391
  47. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:7–22
  48. Ridker P, Cannon CP, Morrow D, et al. C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2005;352:20–28
  49. Hermann F, Forster A, Chenevard R, et al. Simvastatin improves endothelial function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2005;45:461–464
  50. VanDoornum S, McColl G, Wicks IP. Atorvastatin reduces arterial stiffness in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2004;63:1571–1575
  51. McCarey DW, McInnes IB, Madhok R, et al. Trial of Atorvastatin in Rheumatoid Arthritis (TARA): double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;363:2015–2021
  52. Elliott JR & Vogt M. Underrecognition of cardiovascular risk factors in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Circulation; in press (abstract).
  53. Kiana A, Petri M. Predictors of statin toxicity in the lupus atherosclerosis prevention study. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50S:S406
  54. Costenbander KH, Huang J, Kwon H, et al. Pravastatin for hyperlipidemia in systemic lupus erythematosus: a pilot study. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50S:S405–S406
  55. Rahman P, Gladman DD, Urowitz M, et al. The cholesterol lowering effects of antimalarial drugs is enhanced in patients with lupus taking corticosteroid drugs. The Journal of Rheumatology. 1999;26:325–330
  56. Wallace DJ, Metzger AL, Stecher VJ, et al. Cholesterol-lowering effect of hydroxychloroquine in patients with rheumatic disease: reversal of deleterious effects of steroids on lipids. The American Journal of Medicine. 1990;89:322–326
  57. Petri M, Lakatta C, Magder L, et al. Effect of prednisone and hydroxychloroquine on coronary artery disease risk factors in systemic lupus erythematosus: a longitudinal data analysis. The American Journal of Medicine. 1994;96:254–256
  58. Murno R, Morrison E, McDonald AG, et al. Effect of disease modifying agents on the lipid profiles of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1997;56:374–377
  59. Wallace DJ. Does hydroxychloroquine sulfate prevent clot formation in systemic lupus erythematosus?. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1987;30:1435–1436
  60. Lockshin M, Tenedios F, Petri M, et al. Cardiac disease in the APS: recommendations for treatment. Committee Consensus Report. Lupus. 2003;12:518–523
  61. Quatraro A, Consoli G, Magno M, et al. Hydroxychloroquine in decompensated, treatment-refractory noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. A new job for an old drug?. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1990;112:678–681
  62. Gerstein HC, Thorpe KE, Taylor DW, et al. The effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are refractory to sulfonylureas – a randomized trial. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 2000;55:209–219
  63. Solomon DH, Karlson EW, Rimm EB, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in women with and without rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50:3444–3449
  64. Petri M, Perez-Gutthann S, Spence D, Hochberg M. Risk factors for coronary artery disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. The American Journal of Medicine. 1992;93:5113–5119
  65. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. JAMA. 2003;289:2560–2572
  66. Lerner DJ, Kannel WB. Patterns of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality in the sexes: a 26-year follow-up of the Framingham population. American Heart Journal. 1986;111:383
  67. Rutter MK, Meigs JB, Sullivan LM, et al. Insulin resistance, the metabolic syndrome and incident cardiovascular events in the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes. 2005;54:3252–3257
  68. Posadas-Romero C, Torres-Tamayo M, Zamora-Gonzalez J, et al. High insulin levels and increased low-density lipoprotein oxidizability in pediatric patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50:160–165
  69. Paolisso G, Valentini G, Marrazzo G, et al. Evidence for peripheral impaired glucose handling in patients with connective tissues diseases. Metabolism. 1991;40:902–907
  70. Dessein P, Stanwix A, Joffe B. Cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis versus osteoarthritis: acute phase response related decreased insulin sensitivity and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol as well as clustering of metabolic syndrome features in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Research. 2002;4:R5
  71. Genuth S, Alberti KG, Bennett P, et al. Follow-up report on the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:3160
  72. Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, et al. Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and B-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Diabetologia. 1985;28:412–419
  73. Silfen ME, Manibo AM, MCMahon DJ, et al. Comparison of simple measures of insulin sensitivity in young girls with premature adrenarche: the fasting glucose to insulin ration may be a simple and useful measure. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2001;86:2863–2868
  74. Duncan MH, Singh BM, Wise PH, et al. A simple measure of insulin resistance. Lancet. 1995;346:120–121
  75. Hanley AJ, Stern MP, Williams K, et al. Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance in relation to the incidence of cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care. 2002;25:1177–1183
  76. Sekiguchi M, Kurabayashi M, Adachi H, et al. Usefulness of insulin resistance measured by homeostasis model assessment in predicting restenosis after coronary stent placement in nondiabetic patients. The American Journal of Cardiology. 2004;93:920–922
  77. Ridker P, Cushman M, Stampfer MJ, et al. Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1997;336:973–979
  78. Ridker PM, Cushman M, Stampfer MJ, et al. Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and risk of developing peripheral vascular disease. Circulation. 1998;97:425–428
  79. Ridker PM. Evaluating novel cardiovascular risk factors: can we better predict heart attacks?. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1999;130:933–937
  80. Wong GC, Morrow DA, Murphy S, et al. Elevations in troponin T and I are associated with abnormal tissue level perfusion: a TACTICS-TIMI 18 substudy. Treat Angina with Aggrastat and Determine Cost of Therapy with an Invasive or Conservative Strategy – Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction. Circulation. 2002;106:202
  81. Burke AP, Tracy RP, Kolodgie F, et al. Elevated C-reactive protein values and atherosclerosis in sudden coronary death: association with different pathologies. Circulation. 2002;105:2019–2023
  82. Lentz SR. Mechanisms of homocysteine-induced atherothrombosis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2005;3:1646–1654
  83. Petri M, Roubenoff R, Dallal GE, et al. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for atherothrombotic events in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet. 1996;348:1120–1124
  84. Clarke R. Homocysteine-lowering trials for prevention of heart disease and stroke. Seminars in Vascular Surgery. 2005;5:215–221
  85. Sanmuganathan PS, Ghahramani P, Jackson PR, et al. Aspirin for primary prevention of coronary heart disease: safety and absolute benefit related to coronary risk derived from meta-analysis of randomized trials. Heart. 2001;85:265–271
  86. The Medical Research Council's General Practice Research Framework . Thrombosis prevention trial: randomized trial of low-intensity oral anticoagulation with warfarin and low dose aspirin in the primary prevention of ischaemic heart disease in men at increased risk. Lancet. 1998;351:1755–1762
  87. Collaborative Group of the Primary Prevention Project. Low-dose aspirin and vitamin E in people at cardiovascular risk: a randomized trial in general practice. Collaborative Group of the Primary Prevention Project. Lancet. 2001;357:89–95
  88. Augustovski FA, Cantor SB, Thach C, et al. Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 1998;13:824–835
  89. Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network . Antithrombotic Therapy. A National Clinical Guideline. Edinburgh: Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network; 1999;
  90. The Medical Research Council's General Practice Research Framework . Thrombosis prevention trial: randomized trial of low-intensity oral anticoagulation with warfarin and low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of ischemic heart disease in men at increased risk. Lancet. 1998;351:233–241
  91. Rodondi N, Bauer CD. Assessing the risk/benefit profile before recommending aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events. The American Journal of Medicine. 2004;117:528–530
  92. Hayden M, Pignone J, Phillips C, et al. Aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2002;136:161–172
  93. Krishnan E, Lingala VB, Singh G. Declines in mortality from acute myocardial infarction in successive incidence and birth cohorts of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation. 2004;110:1774–1779

PII: S1521-6942(06)00046-5

doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2006.04.005

Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology
Volume 20, Issue 4 , Pages 741-756 , August 2006

Article Tools